A country’s cultural values influence its national psychology and identity. Citizens’ values and public opinion are transmitted to state leaders through the media and other information channels, and foreign policy decisions are both directly and indirectly embedded in the collective consciousness. This collective consciousness is shaped by the traditional cultural values that influence the psyche of the Chinese people: harmony, benevolence, truthfulness, wisdom and honesty.[1]
Dating back to the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), the expansion of the Han people into what is now China was accompanied by the promotion of Confucianism as the most advanced ethical system. The core value of Confucianism, benevolence, extends to the importance of family ties and blood ties and is highly respected by the Chinese. The idea of a peaceful family prospering (家和万事兴) is a famous and widely adopted saying. Truthfulness stands for justice. As Confucius said, “The gentleman understands what is moral; the little man understands what is profitable.” As well as individual benefits, there are collective and societal benefits. All people should pursue what benefits both society and the international community. According to a Chinese proverb, “everyone is responsible for the rise or fall of the country.”[2]
The concept of harmony is a concrete reflection of China’s traditional cultural values of harmony, benevolence, truthfulness, kindness, wisdom, honesty, integrity, loyalty and filial piety in Chinese diplomacy. According to the concept of harmony, the universe contains and unites diversity. Difference is not always equal to the ‘other’ and differences are sometimes a necessary condition for harmony. Uniting diversity under the same roof is an important step in building new foundations. In China’s diplomatic history, principles such as the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence” embody the value of harmony. These principles include mutual respect, mutual non-aggression, equality and mutual benefit, and promote harmony in China’s international relations.
In its early years, the People’s Republic of China sought to strengthen relations with neutral countries such as India and Burma, counter the United States’ (US) efforts to build a hierarchical world order, and strengthen ties with Southeast Asian countries. During this period, Beijing’s values diplomacy advocated egalitarian principles. In 1954, Zhou Enlai articulated the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. These are mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence.
Chinese diplomacy of the 1960s and 1970s emphasized sovereign equality and mutual respect between states, but also articulated the theme of ideological hierarchy. Mao ideologically criticized the Soviet Union as a “reactionary revisionist power” and portrayed China as the “leader of advanced revolutionary forces” whose values should be followed by progressive movements around the world.
In the aftermath of the Cold War, China found it necessary to resist American centrism by re-emphasizing the principles of equality and cooperation in interstate relations. Chinese Leader Jiang Zemin introduced the concept of win-win security, which stipulates that the established system of international relations should reject unilateral security and seek common security through mutually beneficial cooperation. In the early 2000s, China became known for its slogan of peaceful rise, and in 2012, then Vice President Xi Jinping carried this discourse forward. Xi’s ideas took shape as a modernist perspective adapting the themes of Enlai’s Five Principles to the new context.[3]
China’s diplomatic discourse therefore shows historical continuity and stability in fundamental respects. It denies that the theme of ‘equality of all states’ in the current international system is only put forward by the West, arguing that this concept is historically embedded in China.
The concept of ‘harmony’, which Xi often uses in discourse, is fundamental to the Chinese spirit. Harmony means correct and balanced coordination and is parallel to logic. Modern Chinese society strives to maintain harmony between human beings and nature; between people and society; between members of different communities and international relations; and between mind and body. Xi argues that the Chinese dream of international relations must be prosperous and strong. These requirements cover a two-century goal: (i) to build a prosperous and robust society by 2020, (ii) to build China, transform into a modern socialist country and realize China’s dream of national revival by the middle of the century.[4]
In such rhetorical discourses, Xi symbolizes China’s historical rise over the past two centuries. The process of resurgence is divided into three phases. These are (i) the recovery phase, which Mao achieved, (ii) the enrichment phase, which has been achieved, and (iii) the empowerment phase, which Xi has promised to realize. Xi has been more specific, proposing two goals for the empowerment phase: To realize full modern transformation in 2020-2035 to transform China into a great modern socialist country, and to develop China as a global leader in terms of national power and international power.
Xi’s view of China’s position in international affairs takes a historical perspective. Xi’s historicism is based on the belief that the pursuit of wealth and power and the political goals of independence and sovereignty have been a core national mission for Chinese elites since the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in the late nineteenth century.
As a result, in 2017-2018, as Xi Jinping began his second five-year term as general secretary of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and president of the People’s Republic of China, he set the goal of “building a community with a common future” and focused on realizing it. This was written into the party charter at the Nineteenth Party Congress in October 2017 and into the state constitution in March 2018. Moreover, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi has identified building a community with a shared future as one of the “most important goals of China’s foreign policy in the coming years”. China is currently the world’s second largest economy. It is also growing rapidly with the positive momentum of the Belt and Road Initiative. All these developments raise the question, “Will China rhetorically construct a new form of international relations?”
[1] “China’s Traditional Cultural Values and National Identity”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, https://carnegieendowment.org/2013/11/21/china-s-traditional-cultural-values-and-national-identity-pub-53613, (Access Date: 06.03.2024).
[2] Same citation.
[3] Andrew J. Nathan-Boshu Zhang, “A Shared Future for Mankind’: Rhetoric and Reality in Chinese Foreign Policy under Xi Jinping.”, Journal of Contemporary China, 31(133), 2022, s. 57-71.
[4] Feng Zhang, “The Xi Jinping Doctrine of China’s International Relations”, Asia Policy, 14(3), 2019, s. 7-24.
