Gender approaches to nation and nationalism critically examine how concepts of nationhood and nationalism are constructed, represented, and experienced through a gendered lens. These perspectives highlight the role of women and the influence of gender in shaping nationalist movements, ideologies, and practices. Gender approaches reveal the often-overlooked contributions of women to nationalist struggles and critique the ways in which nationalism reinforces patriarchal structures.
Historical Assumptions: Early theories of nationalism (e.g., Gellner, Kedourie, Smith) treated nations as “gender-free” zones, focusing on unity and shared goals.Recent scholarship (e.g., Enloe, Jayawardena, Walby, Yuval-Davis) critiques this approach, arguing that gender is central to national processes.
Gender Relations in Nationalism: Gender approaches emphasize the varied forms of gender relations at stake, such as the balance between domestic (family-focused) and public (politics, employment, education) roles for women.
Contested Models of Womanhood: Nationalist projects often select preferred gender roles, which may appear consensual but are frequently contested. These contests shape national ideals.
Varieties of Gender and Nationalist Ideals
Intersection of Gender and National Identity: Nations are often imagined as gendered entities, with metaphors like “Motherland” or “Fatherland” symbolizing the nation. Women are frequently depicted as symbols of cultural purity, tradition, and national honor, while men are seen as protectors and warriors.
Feminist Critique of Nationalism: Feminist scholars argue that nationalist ideologies often marginalize women by confining them to symbolic roles rather than active participants.
Nationalism tends to reinforce traditional gender roles, portraying women as custodians of the home and culture while excluding them from decision-making processes.
Women’s Roles in Nationalist Movements
While nationalist movements often mobilized women, their participation was shaped by the broader patriarchal structures of their societies.
Cultural Symbols: Women are often represented as embodiments of the nation’s purity, virtue, and morality. In India, the depiction of “Bharat Mata” (Mother India) symbolized the nation as a nurturing and sacred mother figure.
Control Over Women’s Bodies: Women’s sexuality and bodies were often seen as sites of national honor, making them vulnerable to exploitation in communal and colonial conflicts.
Women as Participants in Nationalist Struggles: Women actively participated in anti-colonial struggles, such as India’s freedom movement, Algeria’s war for independence, and Ireland’s nationalist efforts.
In India, leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Kasturba Gandhi played significant roles in mobilizing women for movements like Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India.
Patriarchy and Nationalism: Nationalist ideologies often reinforced patriarchal norms, using traditional gender roles to justify women’s marginalization.
Women were expected to fulfill roles as mothers, wives, and cultural preservers, reinforcing the dichotomy between the public (male) and private (female) spheres.
Women’s Dual Burden: Women were burdened with the responsibility of preserving cultural identity while simultaneously contributing to nationalist struggles.
For example, in colonial India, women were expected to embody traditional values at home while participating in protests.
Post-Independence Marginalization: After achieving independence, many nationalist movements sidelined women, despite their contributions to the struggle.
Women’s rights and gender equality were often considered secondary to nation-building and state consolidation.
Codification of Patriarchy: Laws and policies in many post-colonial nations institutionalized gender inequalities. For instance:
In India, personal laws based on religion often reinforced patriarchal norms, especially in matters of marriage, inheritance, and divorce.
Right-Wing Nationalism and Women: Right-wing nationalism often promotes traditional roles for women, such as motherhood and domesticity, as symbols of cultural purity.
In Francoist Spain, for instance, women were idealized as “indoor heroines,” contrasting them with “liberated” European women. This confined women to domestic roles while glorifying them symbolically.
Even within right-wing ideologies, women participated actively in politics to defend traditional gender norms.
Class and Caste: Nationalist movements often overlooked the experiences of marginalized women, such as lower-caste or working-class women, focusing instead on middle- and upper-class women.
For instance, in India, Dalit women faced a double burden of caste and gender discrimination, even within nationalist discourses.
Religious Influence on Gender Roles: Nationalist projects linked to religion often reinforce domestic roles for women, contrasting with secular democratic movements that encourage public participation.
Organized religions, led predominantly by male hierarchies, often marginalize women within national projects.
Colonialism and Global Feminism: Feminist critiques highlighted how colonial powers used the condition of women in colonized societies to justify imperial rule.
At the same time, women in colonized nations navigated both the struggle against colonialism and the fight for gender equality.
Women and Internationalism
Pacifist Tendencies: Women have historically supported peace movements and internationalism over militarized nationalism (e.g., Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom).
Marginalization in International Politics: Despite feminist activism, women’s organizations were frequently excluded from decision-making in global political arenas.
Conclusion
Gender approaches to nation and nationalism reveal how gender is deeply embedded in the formation and functioning of nations. While women have played pivotal roles in nationalist struggles, their contributions have often been symbolized or marginalized within patriarchal frameworks. Feminist critiques and movements continue to challenge these narratives, advocating for a more inclusive and equitable vision of nationalism.
